| In this issue |
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| WFS Learning Section Bulletin |
Learning Section Steering Team
Steve Steele, Peter Bishop, John Smart, Jay Gary, Dave Stein, Yvonne Andres, Wendy Schultz, Tom Abeles, Ron Newell, Kay Strong
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| Intercultural Communication and Negotiation: Insights on the U.S. – Japanese Relationship |
by Linda Groff
Director, Global Options and Evolutionary Futures Consulting and Professor, Political Science and Future Studies, and Coordinator, Behavioral Science Undergraduate Program California State University, Dominguez Hills, USA
Introduction /Abstract
This
article looks at some general principles and pointers from the
intercultural communication and negotiation fields about how to deal
with similarities and differences between cultures that can affect
their perceptions of each other and resulting interactions. Key
similarities and differences in the socialization of people in U.S. and
Japanese cultures—in different areas in which people learn their
respective cultures—are then compared. The article concludes with
recommendations about the importance of “doing one’s homework” and
learning at least some basic knowledge about another culture—and its
similarities to and differences from one’s own culture—before going to
visit, interact or negotiate with, or do business with its people.
Key Principles of Intercultural Communication and Negotiation
There are a few basic principles from the intercultural communication
field that give important insights into the dynamics of relations
between peoples from different cultures—especially when the people from
these two cultures do not know much about the other culture with which
they are negotiating or interacting.
The
first principle is that the message sent is often not the message
received—especially when people come from different cultures who do not
know each other, and can therefore interpret each other’s behavior or
words differently. A second principle notes the importance of DIE,
short for learning to distinguish between describing, interpreting, and
then evaluating (or judging) the behavior of someone from another
culture. Describing the behavior of someone from another culture is a
purely factual statement of the behavior exhibited or words spoken;
which then leads quickly to interpreting (or misinterpreting) the
meaning of and reasons for that behavior (which will be based on
whether one knows that other culture or not), which can then lead to an
evaluation or judgment (positive or negative) of the other person’s
behavior.
The interpretation stage is
where people get into trouble when they do not know the other person’s
culture and interpret the other person’s behavior based on what it
would mean in their own culture, where the meaning can be very
different, and thus misinterpret the meaning of the behavior to the
other person. Then evaluating or judging the behavior of someone from
another culture as positive or negative follows, based on how one has
interpreted that behavior. The problem is that people often end up with
a negative judgment of the behavior of someone from another culture and
think they are still just describing that behavior.
When people from different cultures come together to negotiate, they
not only have the visible issue (known to both parties) on which to
negotiate; they also have less visible (or known) cultural negotiating
styles that get superimposed on the issue to be negotiated—often
without the parties’ awareness—if they don’t know each other’s
cultures. If parties do not understand each other’s cultures and
negotiating styles, that increases the chances of misinterpreting each
other’s behavior, which can lead to negative judgments of each other’s
behavior, which can then undermine the chances of ever reaching any
agreement on the issue at hand.
Because of
the above dangers of misinterpreting the reasons for behavior of people
from other cultures, the intercultural field recommends the following
policies: (1) do your homework and learn at least some basic
information about the other party’s culture before going to negotiate
or do business with them; (2) find a mentor from the other culture who
you can go to when you have questions about proper behavior and the
meaning of different behaviors in that culture; and (3) be careful not
to stereotype all people from other cultures as “the same” and instead
get to know each person from another culture, to determine how much
they reflect their culture or not. Also realize that all people share
things in common as human beings, but that they’ve grown up in and
learned different cultural patterns of behavior, beliefs, and
underlying values that can influence their behavior; and that it is
also useful to get a sense of where people from different cultures have
areas of socialization in common, as well as areas of difference.
Hypotheses on Dealing with Similarities and Differences of Cultural Socialization
To understand the particular dynamics in the relationship between any
two countries or cultures in the international system, it is useful to
first find out where those two countries or cultures have key
similarities of socialization in different areas, and key differences
of socialization in other areas, and then how these similarities and
differences of socialization may effect the dynamics of the
relationship and interactions between them.
One can hypothesize that in general, when two parties from different
countries or cultures have similarities in their socialization in
various areas that this should (in most cases, with a few
exceptions) create some basis for possible understanding between them,
since they will have each experienced something similar in this area of
life. There are obvious exceptions however, as when two countries or
cultures each claim the same territory—though often for differing
reasons. Such a situation can obviously create conflict and tension
between them. Another example is if two countries are both capitalist
economic superpowers, as in the USA-Japanese case below, though with
somewhat different forms of capitalist economic systems. This creates
both a basis for understanding and trade between them, and economic
interdependence, but can also lead to significant competition between
them, as when they are both producing similar products—such as
automobiles—for the global market. But in general, similarities of
socialization should at least create the potential for understanding
between such actors.
On the other hand,
when two countries or cultures have differences in key areas of
socialization between them, there is an increased possibility of
misinterpreting the meaning of each other’s behavior—especially if
actors are not knowledgeable and informed about each other’s culture.
In that case, they are likely to interpret the behavior of the other
party based on its meaning in their own culture, since they do not know
the other culture, which can then, in some cases, lead to negative
judgments of the other actor’s behavior.
Cultural differences can also lead to great creativity and innovation
coming out of the interactions between people from different cultures,
but for this to occur, it is usually important that both parties are
aware of important cultural differences between them and open to
learning about the other culture and what it has to offer. One is much
less likely to fall into negative judgments of another culture’s
behavior that differs from one’s own ‘if’ one has done one’s homework
and learned something about what that behavior means in the other
person’s culture. If both sides do this, and are open, then both can
dialogue with each other and learn new things from the other culture
and creative things can result, where both parties are able to move to
a third position or new creative idea or product, as a result of their
interactions.
In short, differences of
socialization between two cultures can lead to misunderstandings and
even conflict, if parties are unaware of each other’s cultures, but
with some knowledge and awareness and openness, creativity and
innovation can also result, which is a very positive potential in
today’s world, as all the cultures and peoples of the world are now
increasingly interacting with each other.
Insights on the United States-Japanese Relationship
For any two countries or cultures interacting in the world today, the
particular areas of socialization where key similarities or differences
of socialization exist will be unique to that particular relationship.
This section examines key areas of socialization (or learning of one’s
culture) between the United States and Japan, noting areas where key
similarities of socialization exist (providing potential areas for
understanding), as well as areas where key differences of socialization
exist (which can potentially result in misunderstandings and
conflict—especially if both parties are unaware of these cultural
differences). First similarities of socialization are examined,
followed by differences of socialization.
Key Similarities of Socialization Between U.S. and Japanese Cultures
General
Developed Countries Both countries are modern, developed countries.
Economics
Economic Superpowers Both countries are economic superpowers.
Capitalist Economies Both countries have advanced, capitalist economic
systems, though both are suffering in the current global recession.
Pacific Rim Leaders Both countries are key economic leaders and powers
in the Pacific Rim, where the information revolution emerged and is
driving the global economy.
Technology
Technological Powers Both countries are advanced, technological powers.
Information Economies Both countries are leaders in the
post-industrial, computer/information revolution. Earlier, both
countries were also competing leaders in the development of fifth
generation computers or artificial intelligence.
Robotics Both countries are developing robotic technologies, although
Japan is ahead in this development, since they have a shortage of
younger workers entering the workforce, and thus do not have to
unemploy workers when robotic technology is introduced into the
workplace. Indeed, Japan has had robots making robots on the factory
assembly line for many years.
Energy Both
countries have relied on nuclear energy plants for some of their
electrical energy needs. Despite the dropping of bombs on Hiroshima and
Nagasaki, Japanese still support the development of nuclear energy
because their lack of domestic energy resources makes them energy
dependent.
Space Programs Both countries have significant space programs.
Geostrategic Isolationism Both countries have had significant periods of isolationism in their history.
Moat Mentality Both countries could be said to have a “ moat
mentality”—being surrounded by water and ocean on both sides (USA) or
on all sides (Japan). This has helped protect both countries from
attack by other countries in their history and has allowed for periods
of national development relatively cut off from European influence
(USA) or from Chinese/Asian influence (Japan), as well as from Western
influence (Japan until World War II and its aftermath). Shared Military History
Mutual Military Targets During World War II, both countries were the
target of military attacks by the other country—the United States by
the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor, which brought the United States
into World War II; and the Japanese by the United States bombing of
Hiroshima and Nagasaki, which led to the Japanese surrender at the end
of World War II. Mutual Adversaries During
World War II, both countries were adversaries—the United States being
part of the Allied Powers, the Japanese being part of the Axis Powers.
Because the United States dropped the atomic bomb on Japan, and Japan
is the only country in the world to experience such devastation, this
human tragedy (which some people claim was necessary to end the war
more quickly) forever binds the two countries together—although this is
not really a similarity. Western Allies Both
countries have been Western bloc allies since the end of World War II
in the Cold War alliance against the Soviet Bloc, continuing after the
end of the Cold War. Political System
Democracy Both countries have democratic political systems—the United
states since the beginning of the republic; Japan since the end of
World War II, when a democratic system of government was introduced
into Japan, as part of the peace settlement under General MacArthur.
The Japanese democratic system is based partly on a U.S. model, i.e.,
the Constitution and Supreme Court, and partly on a European model,
i.e., the Japanese Diet or Parliament.
Judiciary Both countries have a Supreme Court, but they are viewed and
used somewhat differently, due to the different cultures of the two
countries. In the United States, with its focus on individual
assertiveness and competitiveness, the number of people suing other
people and taking their cases to court is very high. Indeed, the United
States can be seen to be a very adversarial society in this respect. In
contrast, Japanese culture still places a high premium on group
identity and harmony, and therefore, if a conflict is irresolvable
outside of court, necessitating going to court, this is seen as an
admission of failure, to be avoided if at all possible.
Democracy in Action While both countries are democratic, Japan is a
much newer democracy. Also, the Liberal Democratic Party or LDP has
largely dominated Japanese politics for 55 years in the post-war
period—since 1955. By some accounts, U.S. influence, motivated by a
desire to limit the power of the socialist and communist parties,
played a role in this. Prior to August 2009, it was only for 10 months
in 1993-1994 that other political parties formed a majority coalition
in the Parliament or Diet, allowing them to select the Prime Minister.
Political power has largely alternated between different factions
within the Liberal Democratic Party. Nonetheless, a big change occurred
on August 29, 2009, when the Democratic Party of Japan or DPJ won a
landslide election. One sign of a more mature democracy is having more
than one viable national political party. Demographics
Social Class The great majority of people in both countries consider
themselves to be middle class. Nonetheless, the range of income between
the wealthiest and poorest in society is much greater in the USA than
in Japan. Women’s Movements Both countries
have significant women’s movements, although the issues being dealt
with in the U.S. and Japan are somewhat different. Women in the U.S.
are seeking access to higher positions of authority, responsibility,
and decision making in business, government, academia, and community
organizations, while women in Japan are to a greater extent trying to
gain greater benefits for female part-time workers, since many Japanese
women, after they marry, are in this position. Indeed, women in Japan
are largely responsible for the household budget and for the education
of their children, while men, including “salarymen,” work very long
hours, making such long hours difficult for women with children.
Nonetheless, 40 percent of working-age women in Japan are working, and
increasing numbers of married women are working.
Aging Populations Both countries—as indeed all developed countries—have
aging populations (due partly to declining birth rates and to longer
lifespans), meaning there will be an increasing shortage of younger
workers entering the workforce in both countries in the future. In the
U.S., immigration has made up for declining birth rates. In Japan,
declining birth rates have led to robots being introduced into the
factory assembly line and workplace at a faster rate, without putting
people out of work as a result. Children and
Family Both Americans and Japanese have children, family, and friends
whom they care about and love, and children that will form the next
generation, whom they want to survive and prosper. Culture
Art and Culture Both countries have rich cultural and artistic
traditions—including art, music, literature, theatre, dance,
etc.—although Japanese culture is obviously much older and the
traditional art forms are also different.
Synergistic Cultural Influences While United States culture is
originally more European and Western based, and Japanese culture is
originally more Chinese and Eastern based, both countries are currently
having significant impacts on each other’s cultures—in technology,
legal, philosophy, lifestyle, food, and other areas. Indeed, because
both cultures are in some respects polar opposites of each other
(United states culture focusing more on individual identity, and
Japanese culture focusing more on group identity and harmony), some
believe that U.S. and Japanese cultures can actually learn much from
each other. Abraham Maslow said that a synergistic society would be one
in which the needs of the individual and the group could both be met.
If so, then both Eastern and Western cultures (including Japanese and
American cultures) each have half of the puzzle for figuring out how to
create global synergy! Religious Roots Both
countries have significant, though differing religious traditions
existing since the founding of both countries: Shintoism, and later
Buddhism, plus a much smaller percentage of Christians, in Japan; and
Christianity, plus Judaism, and now almost all religious traditions in
the United States—especially in major urban centres, where immigrants
from all world cultures and religions now live in sizeable numbers.
Sports Both countries have significant and diversified sports
programs—including baseball, which is a very popular sport in both
countries (showing U.S. influence on Japan), as well as the martial
arts (showing Japanese, Korean, and Chinese influence on the United
States), and other sports. Other
“
Both countries have significant and diversified sports
programs—including baseball, which is a very popular sport in both
countries (showing U.S. influence on Japan), as well as the martial
arts (showing Japanese, Korean, and Chinese influence on the United
States), and other sports.” |
Organized Crime; Corruption Organized crime and political plus economic
corruption and greed exist in both countries. The U.S. has the Mafia
and Japan has the Yakuza. In the U.S., Mafia families still play a
role. In addition, greed, corruption, and lack of sufficient regulation
of the private sector can be seen in the recent subprime loan housing
crisis, bank failures, and Wall Street financial crises. In Japan, ties
between the Yakuza, Japanese government, and certain businesses go back
before World War II to the 1600’s and continue today.
Pollution Both countries have pollution problems, which in both
countries are largely the result of the industrial revolution. These
pollution problems are still with us today, even though both countries
are leaders in the information revolution. Earthquakes Both countries (being influenced by the “ring of fire” surrounding the Pacific Basin) are earthquake prone.
Global Warming Both countries, as the world in general, are facing
effects of global warming, including dangers of sea levels rising,
which can endanger coastal cities. This includes the East and West
coasts of the USA, and the coastlines of Japan’s four major islands.
One Planet People from both countries—indeed all countries—breathe the
same air from planet earth. We are also all part of nature and all tied
to earth as our life-support system, and therefore all responsible for
being stewards of the earth—even though we do not all recognize the
importance of this yet. One Humanity People
from both countries share a common humanity and common features of the
human condition, i.e., we are born, we live a life, and ultimately we
are all mortal and die. This human condition gives us much we share in
common in terms of seeking to find and create a meaningful life for
ourselves and our posterity while we are here. |
| Key Differences of Socialization Between U.S. and Japanese Cultures |
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Demographics |
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Ethnicity |
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The U.S. has a very heterogeneous, multi-ethnic population mix (indeed,
a mini world in many large cities today). While people once thought
this would lead to a “melting pot,” the “salad bowl” model (based on
unity and diversity) is now more prevalent. |
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Japan has a very homogeneous population – indeed one of the most
homogeneous population in the world, being 99% Japanese, with a small
percentage of AINOU (in Hokkaido) and Koreans (who, though Asian in
appearance are not accepted as Japanese, although some take on Japanese
names). |
Origins |
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The rich, diverse cultural mix of the American population is no doubt
due to the fact that (except for the Native Americans who were already
there), the U.S. is almost totally a nation of immigrants—coming not
only from European Nations but also from Asia, Africa, the Middle East,
and Latin America. |
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The origins of the Japanese people are not totally known, although the
Japanese—including the Emperor and his family—claim to be descendants
of the Sun Goddess Amaterasu, who founded Japan. There are different
theories, but no definite conclusions, about where the Japanese people
originally immigrated from. It has been hypothesized that some came
from Southeast Asia and others from East Asia. |
Assimilation |
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U.S. culture is more inclusive, traditionally a nation of immigrants
welcoming people from many countries. Indeed the Statue of
Liberty—beckoning people from many lands to the Eastern shores of the
U.S. with strains of “give me your tired, your poor, your teeming
masses yearning to be free”—best epitomizes what the U.S. symbolizes at
its best to its own citizens and to citizens of the world. |
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Japanese culture is more tribal and exclusive, partly based on a period
of isolationism, when their identity as a people deepened. While
Japanese are most hospitable and helpful to foreign guests visiting
their country, if you not born Japanese, you will never be accepted as
a member of “The Japanese Tribe.” This tribal nature of Japanese
identity is now being tested, as Japanese economic influence around the
world grows, making interactions with many cultures of the world
inevitable and necessary. |
Identity |
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The U.S. is a more individualistic culture , i.e., one’s identity comes
through one’s sense of oneself as a separate individual. From the
moment one is born, one is rewarded for standing out as an individual
from the group—in great contrast with Japan, making the two cultures
almost polar opposites in this respect. |
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Japan is a more group-oriented culture i.e. one’s identity comes
through one’s relationship with others in groups and with nature.
Indeed, there is little sense of an individual identity, separate from
one’s relationship with the group. From an early age, one is rewarded
for subordinating one’s own needs to those of the group (“the nail that
stands out is hammered down”) and for being in harmony with the group.
If the group does well, members of the group will do well. |
Culture |
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Context |
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The U.S. is a more low-context culture—indeed, one of the most low
context cultures on earth. In short, American culture is very goal
oriented. Americans like to get down to business and to a discussion of
details right away, so that they can arrive at an agreement as quickly
as possible, and begin the work. Americans say “time is money” and are
known as a very practical “can do” culture. |
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Japanese culture is a more high context culture as are most non-Western
cultures. In short, identity comes through one’s relationship with
others, and one must take time to establish such relationships as a
prerequisite for doing business or negotiating with someone, which
takes time. One cannot get down to the details of a negotiation until
this broader societal context is first established. |
Archetypes |
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Since identity in the U.S. is more as a separate individual, and the
culture is goal-oriented, this represents the male principle, which
U.S. culture (and Western culture in general) represent. |
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In Japan, since identity is more in relationship to others and the
culture is more process oriented, this represents the female principle,
which Japanese culture (and Eastern culture in general) represent. |
Creativity in Science and Technology |
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The individualistic goal oriented nature of American culture seems to
translate into a gift for new ideas, including new scientific
discoveries on a more abstract level (many Nobel Prizes in science) and
new technological innovations on a more applied level—a major reason
why the U.S. is called a “can-do” culture. |
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The more group and process-oriented nature of Japanese culture seems to
translate into a gift for taking ideas originally borrowed from
elsewhere (China at one time, then the West) and then using a group
consensus-building process, to find innovative ways to move towards
perfection of an existing form or product (leading to many patents
today), as well as numerous worker suggestions for improving the
factory production process itself. |
Basic Communication Styles |
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The U.S. is a more direct culture, i.e., people say what they think,
get right to the point, and have no difficulty saying “no.” Indeed the
U.S. is one of the most direct cultures on earth. Foreigners, in
contrast, often view this behavior as somewhat rude and aggressive,
making them feel uncomfortable. |
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Japan is a more indirect culture, i.e., people find it very difficult
and uncomfortable to say “no,” out of a desire to maintain the harmony
of the group. Instead of “no,” people often say “Yes, but...” or “Yes,
maybe later,” which Westerners often interpret literally and therefore
incorrectly, creating frequent misunderstandings in East-West
negotiations. |
Cultural Memes |
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In summary, U.S. culture has individual identity, is low context and
goal-oriented, and has a direct communication style, creating a
dominant U.S. cultural meme. |
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In summary, Japanese culture has collective/group identity, is
high-context and process oriented, and has an indirect communication
style, creating a dominant Japanese cultural meme. |
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NOTE: Because the two cultures are so different in this respect, U.S.
and Japanese people must each stretch to understand each other's
cultures and must put themselves in the place of each other's culture.
The people can also learn much from each other as well, including that
their respective cultures are learned maps or visions of reality, not
ultimate reality. |
Communications Styles |
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Eye contact |
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In the U.S., people look directly into each other’s eyes. Americans
believe that people who do not look you directly in the in the eyes are
hiding something or are not being honest. |
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In Japan, people traditionally do not
look directly into each other’s eyes. They often look instead at
someone’s throat or Adam’s apple area (though with younger Japanese
people, this is somewhat changing). Japanese believe that looking
someone directly in the eyes is rude or overly intrusive. |
“yes” and “no” |
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Americans are more direct and say what they are thinking or feeling.
Americans can say “No.” When Americans say “yes,” they mean “yes, I
agree with you.” |
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Japanese are more indirect and say things indirectly and nonverbally,
out of a desire to maintain the harmony of the group. Japanese people
have great difficulty saying “no.” A famous article on Japan talks
about “16 ways to say no without saying no,” including “yes, but,”
“maybe later,” and non-verbally via sucking in air through the teeth
and then saying a “SA” sound. When Japanese people say “yes,” they mean
“yes, I hear you,” not “yes, I agree with you.” |
Silence |
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Americans have great difficulty dealing with silence, feeling
uncomfortable with too much silence, and often feeling compelled to
talk to break the silence. Americans also often interrupt each other
while talking. |
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The Japanese believe that interrupting another person who is speaking
is very rude. After another person speaks there is also a period of
silence to reflect on what that person said, before beginning to reply.
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Verbal / Nonverbal |
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Americans talk a lot and communicate much more via verbal
communication, believing the truth lies in the words themselves (with
Western religious scriptures starting with “In the beginning was the
word.”). Americans use non-verbal communication and body language but
may be less aware of its meaning. |
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Japanese people are more naturally distrustful of verbal forms of
communication, and due to their more homogeneous culture, they have
evolved a lot more non-verbal forms of communication, including certain
guttural sounds (which unaware Americans often totally miss). |
Conflict Resolution |
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Basic Tenets |
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The U.S. is an individualistic and conflict-prone culture, which often
uses adversarial techniques, such as litigation, direct confrontation,
and bargaining, to try to resolve conflicts. |
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Japan is a group-oriented, and conflict avoidant culture, which seeks
to maintain the harmony of relationships (build up over long periods of
time) at all costs. Thus direct adversarial negotiations and bargaining
are very painful to most Japanese and they seek to avoid such
confrontations. |
Litigation vs. Mediation |
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Litigation is the most common traditional form of conflict resolution
in U.S. culture, and it can be very adversarial. There is therefore a
recent movement towards alternative dispute resolution (ADR)
techniques, including negotiation, arbitration, and mediation, to
provide alternatives that are less adversarial. This has been called a
social movement and an alternative to litigation and violence. |
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Mediation is the most common, traditional form of conflict resolution
in Japanese culture, where a third party mediator (trusted in the
community) goes back and forth informally between the parties to help
resolve any conflicts more indirectly and with less overt conflict.
More recently, Japan has begun importing western lawyers, for certain
kinds of cases, but generally it is still considered a sigh of failure
to have to go to court to resolve a conflict. ( Courts were established
in Japan at the end of World War II by the U.S. occupying forces under
general MacArthur, as part of the democratic institutions imposed on
Japan as part of peace settlement. This is an interesting case of where
institutions transported from one culture to another do not always
function the same way in the second culture.) |
Negotiating Style |
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Self-expression |
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Americans are more likely to express what they think and feel, as they go along in negotiation. |
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Because Japanese are taught to suppress their individualistic feelings,
to maintain the harmony of the group, occasionally those feelings may
erupt—but only after being patient for a long time. |
End Goal |
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Americans negotiate a legal contract, and can do business with
anyone—even someone they do not like, since their legal rights are
protected under law and via the terms of their agreement. |
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Japanese negotiate a relationship, which they cultivate and plan to
maintain for many years into the future. The more important the
agreement to the Japanese, the more time they will spend getting to
know another party before consenting to sign an agreement with them,
since they have to know that they can rely on that part in business
after that. The legal agreement is only secondary; what is of primary
importance is the relationship. |
Bargaining |
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The American main negotiating style is to present strong initial
demands and then expect via hard bargaining back and forth to
eventually come to a back-up compromise position, where both parties
get part of their initial demands met, but not all. This negotiating
style is based on the domestic political process in the U.S., where one
gets at the truth via hard bargaining and where compromise is
considered an admirable outcome. |
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Japan’s main negotiating style is to spend a lot of time developing a
consensus during the pre-negotiation phase, and to present what they
think is fair to both parties at the beginning of negotiations, and
wait to see if the other side will concur or not. Adversarial
bargaining is avoided, as it is very uncomfortable to the Japanese. |
Emphasis |
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As a low context culture, Americans like to get right down to
negotiating the details of an agreement and don’t spend as much time on
the pre-negotiation phase. |
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In Japan, a high-context culture, developing relationships and a group
consensus on fair policies for both sides is essential before
negotiations begin. Thus much more time is spent on the pre-negotiation
stage in Japan. |
Flexibility |
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Americans often change their position in the middle of negotiations,
when they get a new idea. U.S. negotiators are also given leeway to
introduce such new ideas, if they seem appropriate, during the
negotiations, without first having to return home to get an approval. |
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Japanese people come to negotiations with an initial position which
they think is fair to both parties, and they find the U.S. tendency to
change positions mid-stream disconcerting, since it means going back
home and having to develop another consensus again within their own
group before returning to the negotiating table. |
Business Practices |
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Decision-Making |
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Decision-making in U.S. companies was traditionally by management, with
participatory management (under various names) emerging in more recent
years as an alternative. Traditionally, relatively quick decisions
leading to actions were the norm, since “time is money.” |
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In Japan, decision-making is more by consensus, which often takes
longer, but once the decision is made, everyone is behind it, creating
fewer unexpected problems later. What came to be called “Japanese
management” was influenced by Deming’s idea of quality circles, which
fit well with the group identity nature of Japanese culture. (Once
Japanese management worked well in Japan, Westerners became interested
in it, although Deming had earlier proposed the idea in the U.S.) |
Objectives |
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Americans often seek more short term profit—often to satisfy stockholders. |
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Japanese seek more long-term relationships, by which they seek to
establish market share. Japanese companies will sometimes forgo
short-term profit, in order to establish such relationships for the
long-term. |
Purchasing Practices |
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U.S. companies generally seek to buy goods needed for the products they
produce via competitive bidding, seeking the lowest price. |
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Japanese companies—due to Keiretsu Relationships established over many
years between a large corporation and its subcontractors and
sub-sub-contracting companies—seek consistent, reliable products from
known suppliers, which is more important than getting the lowest price.
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Workplace |
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Job Stability |
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In the U.S., people seldom have lifetime employment with the same
company. Indeed, the average person has at least three different
careers, and ten or more different jobs, in his/her lifetime. A job is
defined as ongoing employment with the same employer, while a career is
defined as a chosen pursuit, profession, or occupation. |
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In Japan, people who work for large corporations (or MNCs) usually have
lifetime employment with the same company. While this is beginning to
change, especially with some young people, it is still generally seen
as a negative thing to change jobs. People working for smaller
companies, however, do not have the same job security. Many women,
after they marry, also have part-time jobs. |
Hiring Practices |
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In the U.S., people are usually hired because they can do a particular
job, task, or skill well. While training comes on the job, employees
are expected to bring certain skills with them to the job. |
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In Japan, people are usually hired because they can work well with
others in teams of people in a company and rotate jobs, gaining
experience in different parts of the company. Training comes more on
the job. |
Worker Participation |
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In the U.S., management traditionally made decisions, without much
worker input, on how to improve products or the production process,
although this is now changing with participatory management in some
companies. |
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In Japan, workers are encouraged to offer suggestions on how to improve
products, and those suggestions are often acted upon. (About 95% of the
worker suggestions in a Toyota factory were implemented, for example). |
Lifestyles |
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Workplace and Family |
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While there are workaholics in the U.S., most people consider their family at home their family. |
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Japan: For the mother/wife, her family at home is her family; for the
father/husband, his main family—if he is the typical “salaryman”— is
the corporation. |
Leisure Time and Vacation |
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In the U.S., people increasingly like having leisure time, to do other
things in their lives besides working—including time to spend with
their families. People generally take all the vacation time allotted to
them per year. |
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In Japan, people often do not take all their allotted vacation time,
often finding it difficult to be away from their work group for more
than ten days. Younger people are taking more of their allotted
vacation time than their elders, though often still not the total
allotted time. |
Society |
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Social Status |
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In the U.S., social status tends to be based more on income. Youth is also idealized. |
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Social status in Japan is based on age, sex, and position within a
company, as well as on the company one works for and the university
that one attended. |
Social Structure and Income |
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U.S. society is more egalitarian and democratic in values, but the
income range is much greater between the highest and lowest ranking
people within the same company, and indeed within society as a whole. |
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Japanese society is more hierarchical in structure, which is reflected
in the different ways that people address each other, which varies
depending on whether someone is higher or lower status than you are;
yet the income range is much less between the highest and lowest
ranking people within the same company, and indeed within society as a
whole. |
Education |
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Emphasis |
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U.S. schools get progressively better as one goes from lower to higher
grades, including universities and graduate schools. Education in grade
schools is not always what it should be in terms of quality.
Analytical, creative problem-solving, and verbal communication skills
are stressed. Students learn to ask “why” things are as they are. |
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Japanese education is known as being quite good—in terms of achieving a
high average level of learning for the population as a whole. However,
education focuses more on rote learning to pass entrance exams for the
next level of education, rather than on creative problem solving and
analytical skills. Verbal skills are not stressed as much. Students
learn correct answers, but don’t always ask “why” these answers are
correct |
University Acceptance and Graduation |
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It is easier to get accepted into a university, but harder to graduate, in the U.S. |
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It is harder to get accepted into a good university (due to the
difficult and competitive entrance examinations), but easier to
graduate in Japan. Indeed graduation is almost assured, once one is
accepted to the university. |
Homework |
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Students in U.S. universities are expected to do homework and study a lot to pass their courses. |
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Japanese university students often focus more on their social club
activities than on their studies. This is also the only time in their
lives when they can take time off from studying or work. |
Grading |
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In the U.S., grades are not automatic. One must do the work to get the grade. |
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Most Japanese students, if they take the tests (by studying at the end
of the term), will receive A’s or B’s for their classes— whether they
attended regularly or not. |
Instructional Methodologies |
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In the U.S., lectures and class discussions are usually combined.
Students frequently ask questions on the material presented in class or
assigned readings. |
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In Japan, lectures are the main form of class presentation. Students
rarely ask questions in class. Some people thus say that Japanese
education does not teach good analytical and problem solving skills. |
Family Life |
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Roles |
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Men in the U.S. spend more time with their families , coming home
earlier from work, and learning to help out more at home—especially
since so many women and mothers are now working as well (out of both
economic need and desire). |
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In Japan, men are typically seldom home during the week—arriving home
late at night and leaving early in the morning. Sunday is usually the
day set aside for fathers to be with their families. Wives have almost
sole responsibility for the education of their children and for the
household budget. |
Marriage |
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In the U.S., marriages are almost all based on romantic love. |
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In Japan, marriages are based on both romantic love and
arrangement—which in Japan means the original meeting is arranged, but
then the parties can agree or not to further meeting, and then to
eventual marriage or not. |
Other |
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Alcoholism and Drugs |
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In the U.S., drinking, alcoholism, and drugs are problems—though
society a whole is aware of these problems and many programs exist to
help people with such problems. |
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Drinking and alcoholism appears to be a big problem in Japan, but many
people do not see it as a societal problem—requiring intervention and
help. Instead, drinking is seen by many as just the Japanese way to
have an excuse to go out after work and be more informal and honest
with one’s co-workers and even one’s boss (since the workplace is more
formal). |
Violence |
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U.S. society has more violence. |
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Japanese society has less violence. |
Energy Sources and Pollution |
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The U.S. still depends largely on fossil fuels (coal earlier, at the
beginning of the industrial revolution, and oil and natural gas, along
with nuclear fission, from the 20th century on). Fossil fuels all
pollute, so today there is increasing interest in renewable green
energy sources. |
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Despite the bombing of Hiroshima and Nagasaki at the end of World War
II, Japan has been supportive of nuclear fission energy, partly because
it lacks domestic energy sources and must import them. Japan also has
pollution problems—despite a cultural value of living in harmony with
nature—largely due to rapid industrialization from the top down from
the 19th century on. |
Relationship with Nature |
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Americans see themselves as separate from nature, often seeking to
control or harness the forces of nature—often with the aid of
technology—for the benefit of oneself or other humans. |
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Japanese people see themselves as part of nature, and thus seek to live
in harmony with nature, just as with other human beings. There is no
identity as separate from nature or groups one belongs to—whether the
Japanese tribe or nation, one’s corporation, one’s school class, or
other groups to which one belongs. |
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Conclusions
The above comparisons in similarities and differences of socialization
between U.S. and Japanese cultures show how useful it is to know
something about another culture that one is about to communicate,
interact, or negotiate with, or visit, or work in. In short, it is best
to “do your homework” before you go to interact with a new culture.
That does not mean that you will not make mistakes, but you will at
least be better prepared to expect certain similarities in your two
cultures, as well as key differences, and when differences in behavior
do occur, you will hopefully not be so surprised and will be better
able to deal with the situation. If you understand the differences
between DIE (describing, interpreting, and evaluating or judging the
behavior of someone from another country), as noted earlier, then if
you find yourself suddenly in a negative judgment about the behavior of
someone from another culture, hopefully you will be able to stop
yourself and ask yourself if that negative judgment is perhaps based on
the behavior in question having a different meaning and reason for its
existence in the other person’s culture, as compared to your own. If
you then determine that that is the case, then you may be able to
re-evaluate your negative judgment of the other person’s behavior. At a
minimum, you will at least be able to understand why the other person
is acting differently than you would act in your own culture, and
hopefully this will improve your intercultural relations and
interactions with the other person, as well as with other people from
that other culture.
Interacting with
people from other cultures is an endlessly fascinating experience that
can get you out of the limited worldview of your own cultural
frameworks and values only, making you aware that a much larger world,
with many diverse cultures, exists, and that there are important things
that you can learn from any other culture—‘if’ you are open to learning
and interacting with people from that culture. In the process, you may
just find your own life enriched substantially.
As a Dove ™ candy saying seems to advise, “Share our similarities, celebrate our differences.”
Acknowledgment
The author is grateful to Professor Kazuo Mizuta, Faculty of Cultural
Studies, Kyoto Sangyo University, Kyoto, Japan, for his helpful
comments.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Selected Bibliography: Intercultural Communication and Negotiation
Binnendijk, Hans, Ed. National Negotiating Styles. Washington, D.C.: Center for the Study of Foreign Affairs, Foreign Service Institute, U.S. Department of State, 1987.
Groff, Linda. “Intercultural Communication, Interreligious Dialogue, and Peace,” in Futures: The Journal of Forecasting, Planning and Policy, No. 34 (2002), pp. 701-716.
Storti, Craig. Figuring Foreigners Out: A Practical Guide. Yarmouth, Maine: Intercultural Press, 1999.
Trompenaars, Fons, and Hampden-Turner, Charles. Riding the Waves of Culture: Understanding Diversity in Global Business. Second Edition, New York: McGraw-Hill, 1998.
Selected Bibliography: Japanese Culture and Negotiating Style
Christopher, Robert C. The Japanese Mind: The Goliath Explained. Tokyo: Charles E. Tuttle Co., 1983; and New York: Fawcett Columbine, 1983.
Condon, John C. With Respect to the Japanese: A Guide for Americans. Interact Series. Boston, MA: Intercultural Press, a Nicholas Brealey Publishing Co., 1984.
Davies, Roger J., and Ikeno, Osamu. The Japanese Mind: Understanding Contemporary Japanese Culture. Boston, MA: Tuttle Publishing, 2002.
De Mente, Boye Lafayette. Etiquette Guide to Japan: Know the Rules That Make the Difference. Tokyo, Japan, and North Clarendon, Vt.: Tuttle Publishing, 1990.
Hall, Edward T., and Hall, Mildred Reed. Hidden Differences: Doing Business with the Japanese. Garden City, N.Y.: Anchor Press/Doubleday, 1987.
Honna, Nobuyuki, and Hoffer, Bates, Eds. An English Dictionary of Japanese Ways of Thinking. Tokyo: Yukikaku Publishing Co., Ltd., 1989.
Selected Bibliography: U.S./”American” Culture and Negotiating Style
Althen, Gary. American Ways: A Guide for Foreigners in the United States. Second Ed., Boston, MA: Intercultural Press, 2002.
Datesman, Maryanne Kearny; Crandall, JoAnn; and Kearny, Edward N. American Ways: An Introduction to American Culture. Third Ed., Lebanon, Indiana: Pearson ESL, 2005.
Lanier, Alison Raymond, and Davis, Jeff C. Living in the U.S.A. Sixth Ed., Yarmouth, Maine: Intercultural Press, 2005.
MacDonald, John W. “An American’s View of the U.S. Negotiating Style,” International Negotiation, Vol. 1 (1996), pp. 323-326.
Stewart, Edward C., and Bennett, Milton J. American Cultural Patterns: A Cross-Cultural Perspective. Rev. Ed., Yarmouth, Maine: Intercultural Press, 1991, 1972.
Dr. Linda Groff
is the Director, Global Options and Evolutionary Futures Consulting
(http://www.tiptopwebsite.com/globalops). In addition, she is
Professor, Political Science and Future Studies, and Coordinator,
Behavioral Science Undergraduate Program at California State
University. Dr. Groff can be contacted at ljgroff@csudh.edu or evolvingworlds@gmail.com.
POINTS FOR THE CLASSROOM (send comments to forum@futuretakes.org):
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As Groff points out, some cultures are more inclusive (for example, the
U.S.) whereas others such as Japan are more exclusive and tribal.
Similar descriptors are applicable to various other cultures of the
present and past. Some parts of the world can also be characterized by
“tribes of choice” – for example, one’s workplace,
profession, neighborhood, associations, or even socioeconomic groups –
that can be fluid (see Rubin article this issue). In your part of the
world, what will constitute the primary basis for identity in 2015?
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How can each of the two cultures leverage its respective strengths to
prepare for the challenges that various alternative world futures might
present?
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Groff identifies several differences between Japanese and U.S. culture.
Which characteristics of one culture are making inroads into the other
culture, and with what possible impact within the next ten years?
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Citing judicial institutions as an example, Groff observes that
institutions transported from one culture do not always function the
same way in another culture. Discuss other instances of attempts to
“plug and play” elements of one culture into another. Under what
circumstances, if any, can this type of approach be successful?
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Groff discusses several differences between U.S. and Japanese business
practices and working lifestyles. To what extent will U.S., Japanese,
European, or other business practices and working lifestyles become
more prevalent throughout the world during the next ten years?
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